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Elective -Educational Research Unit4 -Survey method: Nature

The survey is a non-experimental, descriptive research method. Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to collect data on phenomena that cannot be directly observed (such as opinions on library services). Survey is a systematic method for gathering information from (a sample of) individuals for the purposes of describing the attributes of the larger population of which the individuals are members. Surveys are used extensively in field of education.
Types of Surveys
Data are usually collected through the use of questionnaires, although sometimes researchers directly interview subjects. Surveys can use qualitative (e.g. ask open-ended questions) or quantitative (e.g. use forced-choice questions) measures. There are two basic types of surveys: cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.
Cross-Sectional Surveys
Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. An example of a cross sectional survey would be a questionaire that collects data on how parents feel about Internet filtering, as of March of 1999. A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire might try to determine the relationship between two factors, like religiousness of parents and views on Internet filtering.
Longitudinal Surveys
Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period of time. The researcher may then analyze changes in the population and attempt to describe and/or explain them. The three main types of longitudinal surveys are trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies.
(Source: Survey Research Methods, by Earl R. Babbie. http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/survey.html )

Elective -1 Educational Research

Unit4 - Data collection tool
Questionnaire is widely used in survey method. It is a widely used tool of data collection in research. The researcher is required to bear in mind following important points while constructing the questionnaire so as to get the expected responses.
A good questionnaire should have open ended as well as closed ended questions. The open ended question will help to get more detailed and personalized responses.
The questions should be grammatically correct.
The language should be easy to understand for the respondents.
The questions should be properly logically well sequenced.
There should not be too many questions. The questionnaire should not be too long. Similarly it should have sufficient number of questions to get the relevant data.
The questionnaire should specify instructions for the respondents if required.
The questions framed should be clear and should not have ambiguity.
The questions should be relevant to the information desired to be obtained.
The respondents should be given enough space in the questionnaire to write his or her responses.
The questionnaire if to be mailed for administered should contain necessary information about the address of the organization etc. for sending it back.

Core-3 Question Bank (Unit 1-2 RV)

Objective type of questions

1. Write full form of NAAC.
2. Write full form of GCERT.
3. Write full form of DEO.
4. Write full form of DPO.
5. Write full form of CRC.
6. Write full form of BRC.
7. Write full form of MHRD.
8. Write full form, of NCTE.
9. Write full form of UGC.
10. Write full form of IBO.
11. Write full form of CBSE.
12. Write the full form of CICSE.
13. Which are the three programmes offered by IBO?
14. What is DPEP?
15. Write full form of NIOS.
16. Write full form of NCERT.
17. Write full form of DIET.
18. What was the purpose of operation black board?
19. What is MIS?
20. State different types of leadership?
21. What is the full form of PPP?
22. What is the full form of MRM?
23. What are ideational resources?

Questions (Unit1-2, RV)

1. Explain concept and significance of school management.
2. Discuss in detail the scope of school management.
3. State the objectives and policies of state board affiliated schools.
4. State the objectives and policies of Navodaya schools.
5. State the objectives and policies of Kendriya Vidyalayas.
6. How do national schools contribute to the national integration.
7. State objectives and functions of international schools.
8. How do international schools provide education at par with global standards?
9. What is public private partnership in education?
10. What are quality circles?
11. How are quality circles useful in improving management of the school?
12. Why is school organization important?
13. What is school organization? Discuss its scope.
14. Write points for administrative management of a school.
15. How will you ensure effective management of human personnel in you school?
16. How will you ensure as a leader academic management of a school?
17. Explain aspects included under the scope of school management.
18. Explain the concept and significance of educational management.
19. Explain the concept and significance of educational administration.
20. State the functions of department of school education and literacy.
21. State the objectives and functions of District Institute of Educational Training (DIET).
22. State some of the major initiatives taken up the department of Gujarat to upgrade quality of school education in the state.
23. Work out any ten academic policies for your dream school.
24. Work out any ten administrative policies for your dream school.
25. Construct the philosophy of your dream school by working out vision, mission and goals of your dream school.
26. Draw the logo of your dream school and explain it.
27. Work out the duties and responsibilities for teachers of your dream school.
28. Work out the duties and responsibilities for administrative staff of your dream school.

Foundation –Teaching Reading Unit-1 Definitions and meaning of Reading

Most of us think of reading as a simple, passive process that involves reading words in a linear fashion and internalizing their meaning one at a time. But reading is actually a very complex process that requires a great deal of active participation on the part of the reader. Reading is complex activity. It consists of making out the meaning of written language. The meaningful response is the very heart of the reading process. Reading has been defined as an activity which involves the comprehension and interpretation of ideas symbolized by written or printed page.
However, various reading experts have defined reading in different ways. Fries (1963) indicates that while reading is not a simple process, it can be summed up in a simple statement, ‘one can read in so far as he can respond to the language skills represented by graphic shapes as fully as he has learned to respond to the same language signals of his code represented by patterns of auditory shapes.’ This statement reflects his view that teaching of reading is largely a matter of developing the child’s ability to respond to letters and spelling patterns. If these could be converted from print into spoken form then this could be regarded as reading.

Gibson (1965) also characterizes reading behaviour as (a) receiving communication, (b) making discriminative responses to graphic symbols, (c) decoding graphic symbols to speech, and (d) obtaining meaning from printed page.

Betts (1966) has defined reading ‘as a thinking process’. No doubt thinking is an important aspect of reading process, but not the whole of it.

Goodman (1970) – ‘The purpose of reading is the reconstruction of meaning. Meaning is not in print, but it is the meaning that the author begins with, when he writes. Somehow the reader strives to reconstruct this meaning as he reads’.

Jenkinson (1973) – ‘Reading has been defined as the act of responding to printed symbols so that meaning is created.’

Tinker (1952) – ‘Reading involves the reconstruction of printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for the recall of meanings built up through past experience, and the reconstruction of new meanings through manipulation of concepts already possessed by the reader.’

Gray (1956) – ‘A good reader understands not only the meaning of the passage, but its related meaning as well which includes all the reader knows that enriches or illuminates the literal meaning. Such knowledge may have acquired through direct experience, through wide reading or through listening to others.’

Walker – ‘Reading is an active process (not a product, like history) in which readers shift between sources of information (what they know and what the text says), elaborate meaning and strategies, check their interpretation (revising when appropriate), and use the social context to focus their response.’

Manzo and Manzo – define Reading ‘as the act of simultaneously reading the lines, reading between the lines, and reading beyond the lines.’ The first part of their definition, reading the lines refers to the act of decoding the words in order to construct the author’s basic message. The next part, reading between the lines, refers to the act of making inferences and understanding the author’s implied message. And finally, reading beyond the lines involves the judging of the significance of the author’s message and applying it to other areas of background and knowledge.

Roy Harris in Rethinking Writing (2000) – ‘What do we read? The message is not something given in advance–or given at all– but something created by interaction between writers and readers as participants in a particular communicative situation.’

Kenneth Goodman in Journal of the Reading Specialist (1967)- ‘Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game. It involves an interaction between thought and language. Efficient reading does not result from precise perception and identification of all elements, but from skill in selecting the fewest, most productive cues necessary to produce guesses which are right the first time. The ability to anticipate that which has not been seen, of course, is vital in reading, just as the ability to anticipate what has not yet been heard is vital in listening. ,

James Gee in Social Linguistics and Literacies (1996) – ‘Literacy practices are almost always fully integrated with, interwoven into, constituted as part of, the very texture of wider practices that involve talk, interaction, values, and beliefs.’ As you can see, reading involves many complex skills that have to come together in order for the reader to be successful. For example, proficient readers recognize the purpose for reading, approach the reading with that purpose in mind, use strategies that have proven successful to them in the past when reading similar texts for similar purposes, monitor their comprehension of the text in light of the purpose for reading, and if needed adjust their strategy use. Proficient readers know when unknown words will interfere with achieving their purpose for reading, and when they won’t. When unknown words arise and their meaning is needed for comprehension, proficient readers have a number of word attack strategies available to them that will allow them to decipher the meaning of the words to the extent that they are needed to achieve the purpose for reading.

Reading is also a complex process in that proficient readers give to the text as much as they take. They make meaning from the text by using their own prior knowledge and experiences. Proficient readers are constantly making predictions while reading. They are continuously anticipating what will come next. Their prior knowledge and experiences with texts as well as with the world around them allow them to do this. It is this continuous interaction with the text that allows readers to make sense of what they are reading.

Unit-1 The importance of reading

Educational researchers have found that there is a strong correlation between reading and academic success. In other words, a student who is a good reader is more likely to do well in school and pass exams than a student who is a weak reader.

Good readers can understand the individual sentences and the organizational structure of a piece of writing. They can comprehend ideas, follow arguments, and detect implications. In summary, good readers can extract from the writing what is important for the particular task they are employed in. And they can do it quickly!

Educational researchers have also found a strong correlation between reading and vocabulary knowledge. In other words, students who have a large vocabulary are usually good readers. This is not very surprising, since the best way to acquire a large vocabulary is to read extensively, and if you read extensively you are likely to be or become a good reader! “The man who doesn’t read good books has no advantage over the man who can’t read them.” - Mark Twain.

The ability to read is generally regarded not only as the basis of education but also as an essential possession of the citizens of civilized countries. Of all the valuable skills the average person learns in his life time, the ability to read is the most important since it is the most universal and the most useful for everyone today.

Strang (1967) says, “Reading proficiency is the royal road to knowledge; it is essential to the success in all academic subjects. In modern life, learning depends largely upon one’s ability to interpret the printed page accurately and fully.”

Reading helps the individual to understand society and his role as a citizen, as a worker and individual with his own personal needs and problems.
Reading involves the whole personality, promising countless personal and social values. It is essential for fuller personal development and enrichment of life.
Reading is one of the most rewarding uses of the expanded leisure that comes as a result of automation. Reading provides experience through which the individual may expand his horizons; identify, extend, and expand his interests, and gain deeper understandings of himself, of other human beings, and of the world.
Reading has social significance in the modern world. The democracy of any country can survive only if the people of that country achieve a certain general level of reading competence.Russell (1949) has rightly said, “A good general level of reading ability is essential to the working of democracy.” Reading is, no doubt, a potent force for national integration.

Some of the importance of reading is as follows:
1. Reading develops a person’s creativity. Unlike movies where everything is determined by the producer, writer and director, books allow students to create in their minds how a particular character looks like or imagine how a scene plays out. Reading a book therefore, allows a student to exercise and cultivate her/his creative thinking skills.
Developing good reading skills can improve students’ ability to comprehend concepts and ideas.
Reading develops critical thinking, thus, ensuring that students will be able to think and make good decisions for themselves.
Ones’ fluency in a language and, consequently, communication skills are improved by reading.
Reading introduces students to new things and has the ability to broaden their interests. A student who reads a biography of Albert Einstein for example, may be inspired to take his high school Physics class more seriously.
Reading regularly increases the vocabulary.
Reading can develop positive values in students. According to a study conducted in the United States for example, students who learn to read by the time they are in third grade are less likely to take drugs, drop out of school or end up in prison.
One of the main problems of today’s students is their inability to concentrate on their lessons (a result of their shortening attention span.) A solution to this problem is to encourage students to read. According to studies, reading increases a student’s ability to concentrate.
Developing students’ reading and comprehension skills early on in their education also means that you are preparing them for the “real world.” Being able to read well means that they would have no problem understanding manuals, guides or contracts – vital documents and papers they will surely encounter when they join the work force.
Spelling improves when words are seen in print.
Reading also improves students’ writing skills as they are able to “subconsciously acquire good writing style.”

Unit-1 Purposes of Reading

Following are some of the purposes of reading:

· To get information
· To be motivated
· To motivate others
· To encourage ourselves and others
· To improve one’s linguistic skills
· To pass leisure time
· To get delight
· For mental development
· For spiritual development
· For learning social skills
· For learning about other cultures
· For sharing your views
· For passing knowledge to next generation
· For recreational purpose and so on

Unit-1 -Process of Reading

The psychological processes involved in reading are highly complex.
The modern psychology of learning views reading as more than the simple association of printed symbols with their meaning. Hildreth (1958) is of the view that ‘Reading is a two-fold process: first, there is the mechanical aspect: the psychological responses to the print consisting of certain oculo­motor skills, the eye movements through which sensations are conveyed to the brain; and second, the mental process through which the meaning of sense impressions is perceived and interpreted, involving thinking, with swift inferences.’ As the eyes move rhythmically across the lines of print, sensations are received which are interpreted almost instantly by the mind as ideas expressed in language.

1. Physiological Process of Reading / Physical component
To recognize a word is the first step of the reading process.Reading as a visual task-The visual symbol of the written or printed word is the means by which the appro­priate sounds and images are evoked in the mind of the reader. To receive a clear image of the printed word the eyes must focus on it. In reading the eyes do not make a continuous sweep across the page. Rather they move in quick, short suc­cessive movements known as pauses or fixations. A pause or fixation is the stop that the eyes make so that it can react to the graphic stimuli. In the initial stages of reading the duration of each fixation will tend to be relatively long. There will be many regressive movements also when the reader will make return movements to words that were not recog­nized or comprehended before. Gradually as the child’s reading ability increases the duration of each fixation will decre­ase and the number of fixations per line will become smaller with fewer regressions. As a skilled reader we seldom sound out the letters in a word or the words in a sentence. We do not even look at them individually. Eye fixation studies show that in reading the eyes jump three or four times a second taking in gulps of information at each pause.
Normally eye movements vary according to the diffi­culty of reading matter or with a change of purpose. A good reader is distinguished from poor reader by his better word recognition, word analysis and comprehension and these are frequently reflected in more efficient eye movements.

2. Psychological Process of Reading / Psychological Component

Perception-

Perception refers to the interpretation of every thing that we sense, since the symbol has no meaning of its own, perception must go beyond the sensory data. The reader does not see the object, person or experience of which the author writes. Meaning does not come automatically out of word. The child’s reactions to the printed words are determined by the experiences that he has had with these objects or events for which the symbol stands. Thus perception is a cognitive process by which the visual impressions become meaningful in the light of the individual’s past experience and present needs.
Individuals differ in their perceptual sytles. Strang (1967) is of the view that able learners and better readers see words as wholes while the poor readers perceive word fragments and tend to be preoccupied with unimportant details. Able readers recognize familiar syllables and words almost as quickly as individual letters and take in phrases and short sentences as readily as single words. Efficient readers require fewer clues than do poor readers in order to recognize words or phrases.

Concept Formation-

The idea of forming perceptions is related to the idea of forming concepts. When perceptions are grouped into larger patterns that embrace classes or cate­gories, conceptualization occurs. A concept is a process which helps a person to recognize similarities in otherwise diverse objects, situations or events. It contributes further to abstract thinking and generalization. Suppose the teacher wants to teach a child about a tree. Once the child has seen a mango tree, he should be able to recognize the coconut tree also as a tree by referring back to his old experience inspite of the fact that both the trees are quite different in their shape and size. So the child learns after a variety of experiences to see the simi­larities in the trees although they look different from each other. He begins to generalize-or see that they stand straight -they have leaves etc. “So this is how the concepts are formed -the idea of taking all of the similarities from a body of diverse things and seeing them as having certain common family characteristics”. (Berg, 1977).
Persons lacking in the ability of concept formation and generalization find it difficult to recognize an idea unless it is very specific and well explained. Conceptual ability and reading proficiency have a positive relation. Children of normal intelli­gence who often fail in reading in upper primary grades are often deficient in this ability. The teacher should help the students to classify, to organise, to unify ideas and details under generalized headings. This training will help the student to learn concepts more effectively.

Recognition of word meaning-

Children go through stages as they learn to interpret words. Concrete and specific con­cepts are developed first i.e., relating an object to its function: a chair is to sit. The child gradually engages in more complex thinking. ‘The concept of time in sequence, and the concepts of latitude, sphericity, altitude or longitude, for example generally do not develop before grades six or seven. Cause and effects relations rarely are understood before the age of nine, and many social concepts escape children until they are twelve or thirteen’ (Dechant, 1964,). Major determinants of meaning are- experience, culture, affective factors and our own perception of them. These elements combine to make our interpretations of a word very personalistic experience.
Effective word recognition is basic to all progress in reading. Sounding out a word will give the reader its meaning if the word is in his speaking vocabulary. But if the word is unfam­iliar, he will have to use other ways of unlocking its meaning. Such as (a) deriving the meaning from the context, (b) studying the form and structure of the word to get clues from familiar parts, (c) looking it up in the dictionary. In making an accurate interpretation of the meaning of a passage one must take into account the context-time and place, the authors’ intention and purpose etc.

Comprehension
Comprehension is the ultimate goal of all readings. It carries the understanding of a word or a phrase beyond recognition to the understanding of the meaning intended by the author. This involves determining the meanings of words in their language setting and at the same time linking the meaning into larger language patterns and fusing them to a chain of related ideas, usually those that author has in mind (Chacko, 1966). Whether one is reading for knowledge and
information or for sheer pleasure, demand for meaning is central. The degree of understanding depends upon many factors, such as, the nature of the reading task, the clarity of its expression, the reader’s purpose, interest and his back­ground and past experience.
Comprehension takes place on three levels: literal meaning or construction of meaning, interpretation of meaning, and evaluation of meaning. Edgar Dale has called them ‘Reading on the lines’, ‘Reading between the lines’, and ‘Reading beyond the lines’.

Literal Meaning-The first level requires the students to derive literal meaning from sequential words and their gram­matical relations in sentences and paragraphs. This is the stage of reproduction of author’s words and translation of his thoughts into one’s own words. Here the reader recognizes word meaning, the sentence and paragraph meaning and the meaning of continuous written discourse. He understands tbe main idea in a passage and follows the sequence of ideas expressed in it. He follows the author’s arguments, genera­lizations and conclusions. In short, the reader has to under­stand what the author is saying though he may not go deep into it.
Interpretation of Meaning–The second level of comprehen­sion is interpretative level. This involves grasping implied and inferred meanings, reading critically, or reading between the lines. The mature reader recognizes the author’s motives, intention and purpose, interprets his thought, passes judgment on his statements, assesses the relevance of the material read, summarizes the passage, selects the suitable title and identifies the tone of the passage. He establishes a purpose for reading, draws and supports conclusions and makes inferences or pre­dictions. This is also known critical reading. In the words of Strang (1961), “Critical reading involves the examination of ideas. Students should examine a sweeping generalization, state it in their own words, note the evidence offered in support of it, check it against their own experience and information, and finally give their considered appraisal of the statement”.
Evaluation of Meaning-Evaluation involves critical reaction to the material read, which may include many intellectual processes such as discriminating, imagining, analysing, judging and problem-solving. It also involves deriving implications, speculating about consequences, and drawing generalizations not stated by the author, i.e., ‘reading beyond the lines’. On this level, the reader may arrange the author’s ideas into new patterns by extending their scope or fusing them with ideas that he himself has gained from reading or from experience.
While doing so the reader first evaluates the meaning gained through interpretation of the material read. He maintains an objective attitude which demands proof or checking of sources, and evaluates the statements that conflict with or contradict one another. He detects special pleading, such as, emotional appeal or propaganda, and understands that the materials will differ greatly in validity and reliability because of the time of writing, pressure of circumstances, bias of writer and many other factors. Strang (1967) is of the view that by means of both analysis and synthesis, the reader gains a new insight or a higher level of understanding that enables him to reflect on the significance of the ideas. In this rewarding type of reading, he brings initiative, originality and thought to bear on the literal meaning of the printed page.

Reaction

Effective writing arouses in the reader some type of emo­tional reaction, either one of pleasure or indifference or dis­like. Strang and others (1961, p. 14) observed that “a piece of writing may evoke feelings of pleasure in the author’s felicity of expression, approval of his point of view, sympathe­tic understandings of his characters, delight, or exultation. Or it may evoke’ feelings of boredom, annoyance, prejudice, dislike, resentment, or fear.” Great books or poems may be a source of self-revelation-they stimulate us to explore our­ selves and our world. One appreciates reading if he is interested in it and if he reacts appropriately to the excellent qualities which good reading matter possesses. If students read crea­tively, they involve themselves in the book or article, empa­thizing with a fictional or real character as he fights and suffers. Some degree of emotional involvement in the article or book is basic to creative reading. A mature reader must react to What he reads in order to make his reading effective and pur­poseful.

Application

Most certainly the highest level of reading process is the application of what is read to one’s own life. This application of what is read is called creative or integrative reading. ‘Inte­gration of what is read requires that the reader should be able to take understandings, knowledge and attitudes gained in reading and apply them to the solving of his own problems or to the improvement of his own life’ (Miller, 1972). Unless the reader makes use of ideas he gains from reading, the act of reading may have little significance as a means of improving his thinking and his ways of living. According to Yoakam (1955) the ability to use ideas gained from reading depends on the reader’s skill in comprehension, organization, and retention of ideas and upon his ability to gain new ideas and to develop new appreciations. His mind must be alert and he must be willing to make an effort to profit from what he reads.
There is such a wide range of reading materials available today that it should certainly be possible to find books that will be of much use to an individual. The ideas gained through reading must be reflected in his conversation or discussion, and should modify his judgments, increase understanding and suggest new ways of behaviour resulting into all round develop­ment of personality.

Unit -3 Readability –concept,reading rate etc.

Readabiltiy :

The reading ability of a person is nothing but a person’s rate of reading + his or her comprehension of the text given. The reading ability will be decided by number of factors.

Factors affecting readability
· Difficulty level of the text in terms of its linguistic aspect
· Difficulty level of the content involved
· Reader’s familiarity with the text
· Reader’s own linguistic abilities, comprehension and other cognitive abilities such as reasoning, applying , evaluating etc
· Prior knowledge –experiences of a reader
· Reader’s own emotional state of mind during reading
· Physical environment
· Reader’s reading habits
· Type and length of the material involved for reading
· Time given for reading
· Purpose for reading

Rate of reading-concept
· Reading at a rapid rate is of little value if one understands little of what has been read.
· Reading with a high degree of comprehension without caring much about the time spent in reading will be of very little sue.
· Thus both the sped of reading and simultaneously understanding the text are important.
· Bond & Tinker opine that a definition of rate of reading must be redefined as a rate of comprehension of printed & written material.

Reading rate/speed
· Number of words read within any given time period

Causes of slow reading rate

· Vocalization: vocalization is mouthing the word while reading or using the vocal muscles without making any sound. Vocalization is an unnecessary & deterimental habit and should be avoided. Words are read pronounced aloud as they are read.
· Sub vocalization: it is similar to vocalization. However there is no body movement. Lips tongue or vocal cords do not move, but inner type of speech persists within the students mind, he is saying each word to himself clearly pronouncing each word and then listening to himself. This could also be termed as mental speech. In realty this is the thinking process in operation.
· Supports or pointing at words: here the reader points to words in the text with a finger or a pencil or a ruler. It is used for supporting the mind to increase the concentration. However this slows down the reading speed as one’s hand or the ruler or finger cannot move as fast as mind is capable of. There is slow down of the reading speed through mechanical movement of pencil or ruler or finger etc.

Techniques of developing reading rate

· Giving lot of practice of reading different types of reading so as to create a wider knowledge base
· Developing comprehension strategies such as context clues, using dictionary, finding the key words/phrases/paragraphs, omitting descriptions and irrelevant information, encircling important details
· Developing skills to carry out different types of reading such as scanning, skimming
· Developing vocabulary
· Giving time bound reading exercises
· Providing purposeful reading
· Developing linguistic competence mainly in terms of grammar of the language
· Giving guided reading with questions given in advance

Elective -educational research -Unit-3 -Experimental research:

Nature, Definitions:
Experiment refers to the process of studying the effect of independent variables on the dependent variables under the controlled conditions.
According to Best (1977) Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be or what will occur , under carefully controlled conditions.

Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes.
Variables are constructs which varies according to the conditions.
Variables could be an I.Q, a particular teaching method, teaching material, sex, a particular course, temperature, aptitude, attitude, aggression, aspiration, learning style, self esteem, and teaching style and so on.

Independent variables:
The independent variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates or controls in his or her attempt to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.
Dependent variables: The dependent variables are conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear or change as the experimenter introduces, removes or changes independent variables.
Independent variables are of two types
Organismic variables or attributive variables: these variables cannot be manipulated by the experimenter. For instance, Sex, I.Q., race, age
Treatment variables: these are the variables that the experimenter manipulates and to which he or she assigns subjects. For instance, teaching method, teaching material, strategy etc.
Confounding variables: confounding variables are those aspects of study or sample that might influence the dependent variables (outcome measure) and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the independent variable.
Confounding variables are of two types: Intervening and extraneous variables

Extraneous variables: they are those uncontrolled variables (variables not controlled by the experimenter) that may have significant influence on the results of the study.
Intervening variables:
Certain variables that cannot be controlled or measured directly have an important effect on the outcome. These modifying variables intervene between the cause and the effect is known as intervening variables. For example anxiety, fatigues, motivation on the part of the subjects during the treatment have their impact on the results of the study.

Characteristics of experimental research
Control :
Creating an environment so that the effects of the desired variables can be measured objectively. Control can reduce the effect of extraneous variables to the minimum.
Manipulation:
Increasing or decreasing or removing independent variables to study the effect on dependent variables
Observation:
Manipulating the independent variables and carefully observing and recording the effects of this manipulation on the dependent variables or some measurable behavior of the sample.
Replication:
Replication of the study to take care of lacunae observed in the study.

Steps of experimental research
· Introduction-conceptual framework of the selected problem of the study
· Review of the related literature
· Rationale of the study
· Research questions
· Statement of the problems
· Operationalization of the terms/variables
· Extraneous variables
· Hypothesis
· Population
· Sample
· Data collection tools
· Data analysis techniques
· Reference

Designs of experimental research

Experimental design is the blue print of the procedures that enable the researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent variables and dependent variables. Selection of a particular design is based on the purposes of the experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors under which it is conducted. The design deals with such practical problems as how subjects are to be assigned to experimental and control groups , the way variables are to be manipulated and controlled , the way extraneous variables are to be controlled , how observations are to be made, and the type of statistical analysis to be employed in interpreting the data relationships.
Campbell and Stanley (1966) has used following symbol system for discussing experimental designs
R random assignment of subjects to groups or treatments
X exposure of a group to an experimental (treatment) variable
C exposure of a group to the control condition
O observation or test administered
Following are the research designs
1 Pre-experimental design: Here there is no control group. Even if it there is no way of equating the group. Following are the sub research designs under it.

1.1 The one group, pre test-post design
O1 X O2 ,
O1 =Pre test O2 = Post test

Effectiveness of the experiment is measured by finding the difference between the mean scores of pre test and post test.
1.2 The static group comparison design

X O
C O

This design compares the status of a group that has received an experimental treatment with one that has not. There is no provision for establishing the equivalence of the experimental and control groups, a very serious limitation.

2 true experimental design:
In a true experimental design, the equivalence of the experimental and control groups is provided through random assignments of subjects to experimental and control treatments.

2.1 The post test only –equivalent –groups designs
R X O1
R C O2

Here the subjects are assigned through random way (R) to both the groups and groups are thus equated. Then one group is given the treatment (X) and the other is the controlled group (C) which is not given the treatment or may be given the treatment other that the one used for experimental group. At the end of the treatment, tests are administered (O1 for experimental group and O2 for control group). The difference between the mean scores of both the groups are calculated through‘t’ test for statistical significance.

2.2 The pre test post test equivalent group design
R O1 X O2 O1 O3 = pre test scores
R O3 C O4 O2 O4 = post test scores

Here the subjects are assigned through random way (R) to both the groups and groups are thus equated. The pre test scores are conducted for both the groups and the difference in the mean scores is measured. Then one group is given the treatment (X) and the other is the controlled group (C) which is not given the treatment or may be given the treatment other that the one used for experimental group. Afterwards the post tests are conducted for both the groups and the difference between the mean scores are calculated.

3. Quasi experimental design
The pretest-post test non equivalent groups design
O1 X O2 O1 O3=pre tests
O3 C O4 O2 O4= post tests
The entire procedure in this design is same as mentioned above in 2.2 except that the groups are not equated.

Unit-3 Historical research

Purpose: Studying events or ideas of past or philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Nature: Definitions:
According to Nel (1983), historical research is the process of collecting and objectively evaluating data related to past occurrences to arrive at conclusions about the causes, effects or trends of past events that may be helpful in explaining the present or anticipating future events.

According to Young (1987), historical research can illuminate current problems and act as temporary influence. There is a need for historical research to produce a faithful record of events. There is need also for historical research aimed at suggesting through a study of previous events, generalizations for guiding behavior.

In views of Mason (1997) the principle product of historical research is context-an understanding of the organizational, individual, social, political and economic circumstances in which phenomena occur.

Steps of historical research
Charles Busha & Stephen Harter have given following steps of historical research
· Recognition of a research problem
· Gathering of as much relevant information about the problem as possible
· If appropriate , the forming of appropriate hypothesis that tentatively explain relationships between historical factors
· Rigorous collection and organization of resources/evidences and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its resources. The researcher can obtain information through following resources
Primary resources: They are those resources that appeared for the first time

· Written documents
· Interviews with people who experienced a particular time frame
· Artifacts, remains or relics
· Oral or written testimony
Secondary resources: Reports of a person who relates the testimony of an actual witness of an event or an actual participant in the same.
· Selection, organization and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence and the drawing of the conclusions and
· Recoding of the conclusions in a meaningful narration

Joanna Nel (1983) has given six steps of historical research
· Selecting a suitable topic
· Searching for evidence
· Taking notes
· Arranging the information into a meaningful pattern
· Presenting results in a way that provides the reader with a full understanding of the subject.
Methods: analysis of historical records, analysis of documents
Techniques:
o Reading of notes-content analysis
o Tap and film listening and analysis
o Statistical compilations and manipulations
o Reference and abstract guides-content analysis
o Interviews with subjects, anecdotal records –content analysis
o Archives-analysis and thorough studies
o Observing and studying the remains

Unit-4 Steps of proposal writing

· Introduction-conceptual framework of the selected problem of the study
· Review of the related literature
· Rationale of the study
· Research questions (if any)
· Statement of the problem
· Operationalization of the terms/variables
· Extraneous variables (if any)
· Hypothesis (if any)
· Population
· Sample
· Data collection tools
· Data analysis techniques
· Reference

Elective -educational research Unit-4 Selection of a research problem

For selecting the problem, the researcher has to read various types of literature available in the field. There are research journals which publish results of completed research works, ongoing research works. They also publish articles on current trends on the research in the various fields. Similarly, within a specific field also there are thrust areas of researches which are identified and presented in such periodicals. Thus, the researcher has to read and ponder over the available literature in the field and should decide the research problem. While selecting the research problem, the following considerations are also worthy of consideration;

1. Is this the type of problem that can be effectively solved through the process of research? Can relevant data be gathered to test the theory or find the answer to the question under consideration?
2. Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved? Would the solution make any difference as far as educational theory or practice is concerned? If not, there are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be investigated?
3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available? Ignorance of prior studies may lead an investigator to spend time needlessly on a problem already investigated by some other worker.
4. Is research on the problem feasible? Although the problem may be a good one, is it a good problem for me? Will be able to carry it through to a successful conclusion? some of the questions the researchers should consider are the following ;
· Am I competent to plan and carry out a study of this type? Do I know enough about this field to understand its significant aspects and to interpret my findings? Am I skillful enough to develop, administer and interpret necessary data- gathering tools and procedures?
· Are pertinent data available? Are valid and reliable data gathering devices and procedures available? Will I get permission for collecting the data from the concerned samples?
· Will I have the necessary financial resources to carry on this study? What will be the expenses involved in data –gathering equipment, printing, test materials, travel, and clerical help?
· Will I have enough time to complete the project? Will there be time to devise the procedures, select the data gathering devices, gather and analysis the data and complete the research the project?
· Will I have the determination to pursue the study despite the difficulties and social constraints that may be involved? Will I be able to succeed when dta are difficult to gather and when others are reluctant to cooperate?

Unit 2-Dramatization method

Dramatization is one of the most joyful and interesting ways of learning a language particularly in case of Sanskrit as Sanskrit literature abounds in dramas. There are lot of ancient literature available which includes simple stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similarly there are well known dramas from the pens of classical writers.
Merits of Dramatization
Ø An actual environment related to the episodes, events can be created as the students wear costumes, prepare speeches etc. All these help in making understanding is easier.
Ø The students get lot of oral practice in Sanskrit which helps in improving pronunciation and fluency in the language. They understand how to speak different words with correct intonation and expressions.
Ø The students play the drama which requires team work so group learning ensures better language learning.
Ø It is interesting activity which includes lot of fun. The students have to act the characters so the students get better insights into the ancient characters, events, episodes. The students are actively involved as they can feel the emotions of the characters which they play. All senses are actively involved so learning is better.
Ø The dramatization includes development of skills like listening, speaking and reading and even writing if creative dramas are written in Sanskrit by the students.
Ø There is a deviation from the regular teaching so it is innovative and creates interest among students.

The teacher can ask the students to play the dramas given in the textbooks or can select some well known episodes from the literary works, make the students understand them and give enough practice to rehearse it. The dramas can also be presented in the annual function of the school. The teacher can also write small drama script related to modern topics such as cleanliness, environment etc. and can encourage students to stage may be in the school or near by community.
Limitations of Dramatization
Ø It is time consuming.
Ø If not guided properly it might create disinterest among students.
Ø In absence of practice, it might be difficult for students to stage the dramas in Sanskrit.
Ø It requires knowledge of Sanskrit dramas on the part of teachers.

Unit 2-Communicative approach

The major focus of learning any language is to be able to use that language. The prime focus of communicative approach is also on enabling learners to use the language .That means they are to be able to communicate in the language. The communicative approach centers on the development of language skills that is Listening, Speaking, Reading and writing. This approach of language learning is recently used for teaching English in India.

The characteristics of communicative view of language are

Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
The primary function of a language is to allow interaction and communication.
The structure of a language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning.

In communicative language teaching meaning is paramount and not the structure of the language. Some of the principles of communicative language teaching are
Learners learn through using it to communicate
Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities
Fluency is an important aspect of communication
Communication involves integration of different language skills
Learning is process of creative construction and involves trial and errors.

Merits of Communicative approach
It helps the learners to use the language which is the primary function of learning any language.
Helps the learners to develop their communication skills mainly listening and speaking
Lot of oral work is given importance so there is development of speech in Sanskrit.
It follows the pattern of first language learning according to which language is learnt through listening and speaking so resulting into better language learning
There is no undue stress given on grammar so learners can learn the language without fear of grammar
Fluency is given importance in learning the language. Accurate use of the language is not overstressed but appropriate use of the language with respect to the situation is given more importance.
There is freedom to use expressions in mother tongue in the form of vocabulary whenever necessary. In case of Sanskrit there can be use of Tatsam and Tadabhava words to make learners use Sanskrit for communication
Grammar follows communication in learning the language so learners do not feel burdensome in learning Sanskrit
It helps in creating a climate of Sanskrit in the classroom
It makes learning of language more joyful and interesting as learners learn the language not about the language

Demerits of Communicative approach
o Grammar is not given much importance so students might not be skillful in using correct language
o Reading and writing are not given importance as compare to listening and speaking
o In the absence of the basic language on the part of the learners, it will be difficult to teach the language through communicative activities.
o Especially with reference to teaching of Sanskrit , it will be difficult to teach through this approach as teachers themselves need to be competent to communicate in Sanskrit.The beauty of the perfection of Sanskrit is marred when grammar is not given importance

Unit-2 Traditional /Pathashala method

Traditional Method has the honour of being the oldest method and most effective method of teaching Sanskrit. Even today there are hundreds of pathashalas with many teachers following this method of teaching. Some of the salient features of this traditional system are as follows.
Ø It is a teacher centered Method
Ø It advocates for specialized education in various branches of advanced study like Vyakarana, Vedanat, Mimansa etc. A child after mastering three R's and the elements of Sanskrit language entered into the sphere of this specialized education.
Ø At the secondary level pupils start learning Sanskrit from Shabdarupavali, Dhaturupavali, Samasachakra, Amarkosha. That is a child is required to learn grammar first followed by its literature.
Ø The medium of instruction is Sanskrit.
Ø The ample stress is laid on the development of the power of memorizing because it forms a central feature of this system of teaching.
Ø The textbooks too are in Sanskrit.
Demerits
Though traditional way of teaching Sanskrit is more suitable, it cannot be proved to be effective in secondary classes because the very objective of teaching Sanskrit today has changed. Today emphasize is more on development of understanding of this language through basic grammar. Moreover Sanskrit is taught as one of the subject of curriculum and not the only subject as in traditional method. Similarly teaching through Sanskrit medium and grammar followed by literature is practically not possible from modern education point of view.

Unit-2 Anvay Method for teaching a poetry lesson

There are different methods of teaching poetry in Sanskrit .However amongst all of them the anavay method is the important one. Anvay means to join the relationship between different words in a sentence. Here the words which are placed in poetical form are placed in simple prose order so as to covey the meaning of the verse easily. While doing so the grammatical structure is kept in mind. Such simple prose arrangements are done in Sanskrit only. Embellished poetical composition can be made easily comprehensible by anvya. It also includes use of simple words, synonyms in addition to the words used in poetical composition.
Merits of anvay method
· It makes the poetical form easy to understand.
· Sanskrit poetry is often laden with profuse use of figure of speech. Anvay helps to comprehend them.
· Since this method allows the use of simple words, synonyms, words other than the words used in the verse, the verse can be simplified for understanding without taking any liberty with syntactical and semantic aspects of the poetry.
· Anvay is done in Sanskrit thus it keeps evils caused due to translation away in teaching poetry.
· It enriches students’ language as they come across different synonyms , sentence construction etc
· It creates and sustains students’ interest and motivation in learning poetry
Demerits of anvay method
· Since the anvya is to be done in Sanskrit only, teachers need to be having competencies in the language. It may not be possible for all teachers to teach through anvay.
· It requires on the part of the teachers knowledge of grammar as well.
Teachers have to have vats vocabulary and knowledge of similar verbs so as to make anvay simple thereby facilitate in comprehension of meaning of poetry.

Unit 2-Grammar translation method

Grammar translation method is a way of studying a language that approaches the language through the detailed analysis of its grammar rules followed by the application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. It was primarily used to teach foreign language that is English in India since long. Sanskrit too was started teaching by this method after the arrival of Britishers in India. Even today to a very large extent, Sanskrit is taught through this method at all levels of education in the country.
Features of Grammar translation method
Ø The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice .Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language. And it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the grammar translation method.
Ø Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is given to speaking or listening.
Ø Grammar is deductively that is through the presentation and study of grammar rules which are practiced through translation exercises.
Ø Students’ native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new words; grammatical aspects etc. and make the students comprehend the text.

Merits of Grammar translation method
Ø Grammar translation method helps in making students understand different aspects of Sanskrit grammar such as sandhis, cases, Formation of words etc.
Ø It also helps in better comprehension of the given text as they are taught the meaning through some other language.
Ø It improves their knowledge of Sanskrit grammar
Ø Lot of importance is given to the correct use of grammar in Sanskrit even today. So teaching a language through this method helps students to learn grammar better.
Ø Students learn to read and write correctly in Sanskrit as they learn grammar.
Ø It is a useful method for teaching at higher secondary level as there are extracts from the Vedic and classical works.

Limitations of Grammar translation method
Ø Teaching of Sanskrit through this method does not provide any exposure for speaking and listening in Sanskrit. Thus oral work is neglected.
Ø It is against the natural way of learning the language.
Ø There is lot of wastage of mental energy as students first think in some other language and try to understand the meaning.

Unit-2 Structural approach of teaching Sanskrit

The structural approach was essentially used for teaching English as the foreign language. The structure approach is based on the following principles:
1. Importance of speech: In language learning, speech is more important than reading and writing, the reason of this is that language is learnt orally first. Moreover, speech becomes fundamental acquiring other skills like reading and writing. In this approach, speech is given more importance.
2. Formation of Language Habits: Structural Approach emphasizes on the fact that language learning is a habit formation process. Here a lot of drill work is given to the learners. The students are provided a lot of practice in listening, speaking, reading and writing. Thus the structures are well fixed up in the minds of the learners.
3. Pupil’s Activity: The students are expected to be very active. In this approach, pupil’s activity is given more importance as compared to teachers; it is believed that the best teaching takes place if both the teacher and the students are actively involved in it. This approach takes care of it.
4. Mastery of Structures: One structure is taken up as the teaching points. It’s listening, speaking, reading and writing practice is given to the learners step by step. The more aural-oral practice is given to the learners for better result. Thus mastery of structures results in effective language learning
5. Meaningful Situations: The teacher is expected to create meaningful situations. The different types of meaningful situation can be created by facial expressions, demonstration and action. This makes the teacher’s work interesting.

The structural approach has basic assumption that the language is a set of systems of structures, so if these structures are mastered through drill and practice in meaningful communication, language will be learnt. The structures in Sanskrit are all different types of nouns, verbs, indeclinable, declensions of nouns, sentence pattern, compound words etc.
Gradation of Structures:
The students are taught structures of language from simple to complex. When the structural syllabus is prepared, the structures are graded from simple to difficult ones.

The structural syllabus and approach is followed by NGO like Sanskrit Bharati for teaching people speaking Sanskrit. It is called Sanskrit sambhashana. The structures are graded in their syllabus as follows;

Lesson. No. 1
Structures : Bhavatah/bhavtyaha naam kim?

Lesson 2. Eshaha /saha
Lesson .3 Eshaa/shaa
Leson.4 Etat/tat
Lesson .5 Eshaha kah?
Lesson .6 Eshaa kaa?
Lesson .7 Etat/tat kim ?
lesson.8 Kaha /kau/ke and so on

The structures are taught by using them in conversation. First of all the use of the structure is demonstrated by the teacher by using it in the sentence. The teacher asks students to repeat the sentences for practice. The students are expected to make use of those structures in their own creative sentences.
The Advantages of the Structural Approach:
· The students remain active throughout in the teaching learning
process.
· It helps the students to acquire fluency in their spoken English.
· It makes the students creative learners. They are able to think a large
number of sentences of similar types.
· The students are able to understand the subject matter fully because
teaching is conducted by creating meaningful situations.
· The learners are able to retain the subject matter in their minds for a
longer time because they learn through situations.
· Learning of the language takes place in a natural way because the
students have listening and speaking first followed by reading and
writing,
· It helps the learner to have good command over the language.
· It enables the students to have good pronunciation. Whenever a
student mispronounces a word, there is immediate check by the
teacher.
· Language learning becomes a habit with the student. So the learner
is able to speak or write without any stress or strain.
· The different skills of teaching learning the language are equally
emphasized. So the students are good in all the skills. i.e.: listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
· Structural approach helps all the students of the class to learn the
language well. Even the slow learners and the backward children are
benefited.
The Disadvantages of the Structural Approach:
· In structural approach, the learners have to be given a lot of
practice.This type of teaching might make the process of teaching
learning dull and mechanical for a few learners.
· Teaching by structural approach requires the services of really
competent and hard working teachers. But there is dearth of this
type of teachers in our country.
· Teaching by structural approach will be successful only if we have
structurally graded syllabus.Now when the emphasis is on communicative approach, structural approach cannot be given more importance and weightage.

unit-2 Teaching poetry in Sanskrit

Objectives of teaching poetry in Sanskrit:
To enable students

· To make students familiar with different forms of Sanskrit poetry.
· To comprehend the meaning of poetry in Sanskrit
· To develop competencies to read and to recite with proper accents,
intonation and rhythm among students.
· To enable the students to enjoy the style, meter, sentiment and
verbal description given in the poetry.
· To enable the students to rejoice at sentiment of poetry through
mass recitation of Sanskrit verses.
· To develop love and interest for learning of the poetry.
· To develop aesthetic sensibility among the students.
· To develop emotions and creativity among the students for the
poetry.
· To nurture imagination ability of the students.
· To include values through teaching of poetry.
· To enable the students to appreciate literary beauty of Sanskrit
poetry.
Specific objectives of teaching poetry

The specific objectives would vary depending upon different poetical forms. However following general specific objectives can be listed
To enable students
· to state meaning of words into English correctly.
· to state synonyms of the words and verbs.
· to state anavya of the verses.
· to describe meaning of verses into English.
· to give examples related to the meaning of the verses.
· to locate adjectives used in the verses.
· to compare verses with other stories/ verses/anecdotes.
· to narrate a story related to the verses.
· to use synonyms and similar verbs in place of the unknown words
and verbs of the verses.
· to recite the verses with proper meters.
· to describe the emotions embodied in the verses.
· to describe the imagination of the poet.
· to locate use of figure of speech, style and merits of poetry.

Stages of teaching poetry in Sanskrit

v Introduction
v Recitation/ singing
v Sandhimukta reading
v Disjoining/dissolving of sandhis and compounds, use of familiar
words/ verbs in place of unfamiliar words/ verbs
v Simple Anvay/translation
v Explanation of anvay
v Comprehension of verses of poetry at four levels.
v Vichaar saundraya
v Bhav saundraya
v Dhavni saundraya
v Shaily saundarya
v Recitation/ singing of the verses
v Comparison with other poems