The psychological processes involved in reading are highly complex.
The modern psychology of learning views reading as more than the simple association of printed symbols with their meaning. Hildreth (1958) is of the view that ‘Reading is a two-fold process: first, there is the mechanical aspect: the psychological responses to the print consisting of certain oculomotor skills, the eye movements through which sensations are conveyed to the brain; and second, the mental process through which the meaning of sense impressions is perceived and interpreted, involving thinking, with swift inferences.’ As the eyes move rhythmically across the lines of print, sensations are received which are interpreted almost instantly by the mind as ideas expressed in language.
1. Physiological Process of Reading / Physical component
To recognize a word is the first step of the reading process.Reading as a visual task-The visual symbol of the written or printed word is the means by which the appropriate sounds and images are evoked in the mind of the reader. To receive a clear image of the printed word the eyes must focus on it. In reading the eyes do not make a continuous sweep across the page. Rather they move in quick, short successive movements known as pauses or fixations. A pause or fixation is the stop that the eyes make so that it can react to the graphic stimuli. In the initial stages of reading the duration of each fixation will tend to be relatively long. There will be many regressive movements also when the reader will make return movements to words that were not recognized or comprehended before. Gradually as the child’s reading ability increases the duration of each fixation will decrease and the number of fixations per line will become smaller with fewer regressions. As a skilled reader we seldom sound out the letters in a word or the words in a sentence. We do not even look at them individually. Eye fixation studies show that in reading the eyes jump three or four times a second taking in gulps of information at each pause.
Normally eye movements vary according to the difficulty of reading matter or with a change of purpose. A good reader is distinguished from poor reader by his better word recognition, word analysis and comprehension and these are frequently reflected in more efficient eye movements.
The modern psychology of learning views reading as more than the simple association of printed symbols with their meaning. Hildreth (1958) is of the view that ‘Reading is a two-fold process: first, there is the mechanical aspect: the psychological responses to the print consisting of certain oculomotor skills, the eye movements through which sensations are conveyed to the brain; and second, the mental process through which the meaning of sense impressions is perceived and interpreted, involving thinking, with swift inferences.’ As the eyes move rhythmically across the lines of print, sensations are received which are interpreted almost instantly by the mind as ideas expressed in language.
1. Physiological Process of Reading / Physical component
To recognize a word is the first step of the reading process.Reading as a visual task-The visual symbol of the written or printed word is the means by which the appropriate sounds and images are evoked in the mind of the reader. To receive a clear image of the printed word the eyes must focus on it. In reading the eyes do not make a continuous sweep across the page. Rather they move in quick, short successive movements known as pauses or fixations. A pause or fixation is the stop that the eyes make so that it can react to the graphic stimuli. In the initial stages of reading the duration of each fixation will tend to be relatively long. There will be many regressive movements also when the reader will make return movements to words that were not recognized or comprehended before. Gradually as the child’s reading ability increases the duration of each fixation will decrease and the number of fixations per line will become smaller with fewer regressions. As a skilled reader we seldom sound out the letters in a word or the words in a sentence. We do not even look at them individually. Eye fixation studies show that in reading the eyes jump three or four times a second taking in gulps of information at each pause.
Normally eye movements vary according to the difficulty of reading matter or with a change of purpose. A good reader is distinguished from poor reader by his better word recognition, word analysis and comprehension and these are frequently reflected in more efficient eye movements.
2. Psychological Process of Reading / Psychological Component
Perception-
Perception refers to the interpretation of every thing that we sense, since the symbol has no meaning of its own, perception must go beyond the sensory data. The reader does not see the object, person or experience of which the author writes. Meaning does not come automatically out of word. The child’s reactions to the printed words are determined by the experiences that he has had with these objects or events for which the symbol stands. Thus perception is a cognitive process by which the visual impressions become meaningful in the light of the individual’s past experience and present needs.
Individuals differ in their perceptual sytles. Strang (1967) is of the view that able learners and better readers see words as wholes while the poor readers perceive word fragments and tend to be preoccupied with unimportant details. Able readers recognize familiar syllables and words almost as quickly as individual letters and take in phrases and short sentences as readily as single words. Efficient readers require fewer clues than do poor readers in order to recognize words or phrases.
Individuals differ in their perceptual sytles. Strang (1967) is of the view that able learners and better readers see words as wholes while the poor readers perceive word fragments and tend to be preoccupied with unimportant details. Able readers recognize familiar syllables and words almost as quickly as individual letters and take in phrases and short sentences as readily as single words. Efficient readers require fewer clues than do poor readers in order to recognize words or phrases.
Concept Formation-
The idea of forming perceptions is related to the idea of forming concepts. When perceptions are grouped into larger patterns that embrace classes or categories, conceptualization occurs. A concept is a process which helps a person to recognize similarities in otherwise diverse objects, situations or events. It contributes further to abstract thinking and generalization. Suppose the teacher wants to teach a child about a tree. Once the child has seen a mango tree, he should be able to recognize the coconut tree also as a tree by referring back to his old experience inspite of the fact that both the trees are quite different in their shape and size. So the child learns after a variety of experiences to see the similarities in the trees although they look different from each other. He begins to generalize-or see that they stand straight -they have leaves etc. “So this is how the concepts are formed -the idea of taking all of the similarities from a body of diverse things and seeing them as having certain common family characteristics”. (Berg, 1977).
Persons lacking in the ability of concept formation and generalization find it difficult to recognize an idea unless it is very specific and well explained. Conceptual ability and reading proficiency have a positive relation. Children of normal intelligence who often fail in reading in upper primary grades are often deficient in this ability. The teacher should help the students to classify, to organise, to unify ideas and details under generalized headings. This training will help the student to learn concepts more effectively.
Persons lacking in the ability of concept formation and generalization find it difficult to recognize an idea unless it is very specific and well explained. Conceptual ability and reading proficiency have a positive relation. Children of normal intelligence who often fail in reading in upper primary grades are often deficient in this ability. The teacher should help the students to classify, to organise, to unify ideas and details under generalized headings. This training will help the student to learn concepts more effectively.
Recognition of word meaning-
Children go through stages as they learn to interpret words. Concrete and specific concepts are developed first i.e., relating an object to its function: a chair is to sit. The child gradually engages in more complex thinking. ‘The concept of time in sequence, and the concepts of latitude, sphericity, altitude or longitude, for example generally do not develop before grades six or seven. Cause and effects relations rarely are understood before the age of nine, and many social concepts escape children until they are twelve or thirteen’ (Dechant, 1964,). Major determinants of meaning are- experience, culture, affective factors and our own perception of them. These elements combine to make our interpretations of a word very personalistic experience.
Effective word recognition is basic to all progress in reading. Sounding out a word will give the reader its meaning if the word is in his speaking vocabulary. But if the word is unfamiliar, he will have to use other ways of unlocking its meaning. Such as (a) deriving the meaning from the context, (b) studying the form and structure of the word to get clues from familiar parts, (c) looking it up in the dictionary. In making an accurate interpretation of the meaning of a passage one must take into account the context-time and place, the authors’ intention and purpose etc.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the ultimate goal of all readings. It carries the understanding of a word or a phrase beyond recognition to the understanding of the meaning intended by the author. This involves determining the meanings of words in their language setting and at the same time linking the meaning into larger language patterns and fusing them to a chain of related ideas, usually those that author has in mind (Chacko, 1966). Whether one is reading for knowledge and
information or for sheer pleasure, demand for meaning is central. The degree of understanding depends upon many factors, such as, the nature of the reading task, the clarity of its expression, the reader’s purpose, interest and his background and past experience.
Comprehension takes place on three levels: literal meaning or construction of meaning, interpretation of meaning, and evaluation of meaning. Edgar Dale has called them ‘Reading on the lines’, ‘Reading between the lines’, and ‘Reading beyond the lines’.
Effective word recognition is basic to all progress in reading. Sounding out a word will give the reader its meaning if the word is in his speaking vocabulary. But if the word is unfamiliar, he will have to use other ways of unlocking its meaning. Such as (a) deriving the meaning from the context, (b) studying the form and structure of the word to get clues from familiar parts, (c) looking it up in the dictionary. In making an accurate interpretation of the meaning of a passage one must take into account the context-time and place, the authors’ intention and purpose etc.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the ultimate goal of all readings. It carries the understanding of a word or a phrase beyond recognition to the understanding of the meaning intended by the author. This involves determining the meanings of words in their language setting and at the same time linking the meaning into larger language patterns and fusing them to a chain of related ideas, usually those that author has in mind (Chacko, 1966). Whether one is reading for knowledge and
information or for sheer pleasure, demand for meaning is central. The degree of understanding depends upon many factors, such as, the nature of the reading task, the clarity of its expression, the reader’s purpose, interest and his background and past experience.
Comprehension takes place on three levels: literal meaning or construction of meaning, interpretation of meaning, and evaluation of meaning. Edgar Dale has called them ‘Reading on the lines’, ‘Reading between the lines’, and ‘Reading beyond the lines’.
Literal Meaning-The first level requires the students to derive literal meaning from sequential words and their grammatical relations in sentences and paragraphs. This is the stage of reproduction of author’s words and translation of his thoughts into one’s own words. Here the reader recognizes word meaning, the sentence and paragraph meaning and the meaning of continuous written discourse. He understands tbe main idea in a passage and follows the sequence of ideas expressed in it. He follows the author’s arguments, generalizations and conclusions. In short, the reader has to understand what the author is saying though he may not go deep into it.
Interpretation of Meaning–The second level of comprehension is interpretative level. This involves grasping implied and inferred meanings, reading critically, or reading between the lines. The mature reader recognizes the author’s motives, intention and purpose, interprets his thought, passes judgment on his statements, assesses the relevance of the material read, summarizes the passage, selects the suitable title and identifies the tone of the passage. He establishes a purpose for reading, draws and supports conclusions and makes inferences or predictions. This is also known critical reading. In the words of Strang (1961), “Critical reading involves the examination of ideas. Students should examine a sweeping generalization, state it in their own words, note the evidence offered in support of it, check it against their own experience and information, and finally give their considered appraisal of the statement”.
Evaluation of Meaning-Evaluation involves critical reaction to the material read, which may include many intellectual processes such as discriminating, imagining, analysing, judging and problem-solving. It also involves deriving implications, speculating about consequences, and drawing generalizations not stated by the author, i.e., ‘reading beyond the lines’. On this level, the reader may arrange the author’s ideas into new patterns by extending their scope or fusing them with ideas that he himself has gained from reading or from experience.
While doing so the reader first evaluates the meaning gained through interpretation of the material read. He maintains an objective attitude which demands proof or checking of sources, and evaluates the statements that conflict with or contradict one another. He detects special pleading, such as, emotional appeal or propaganda, and understands that the materials will differ greatly in validity and reliability because of the time of writing, pressure of circumstances, bias of writer and many other factors. Strang (1967) is of the view that by means of both analysis and synthesis, the reader gains a new insight or a higher level of understanding that enables him to reflect on the significance of the ideas. In this rewarding type of reading, he brings initiative, originality and thought to bear on the literal meaning of the printed page.
Reaction
Effective writing arouses in the reader some type of emotional reaction, either one of pleasure or indifference or dislike. Strang and others (1961, p. 14) observed that “a piece of writing may evoke feelings of pleasure in the author’s felicity of expression, approval of his point of view, sympathetic understandings of his characters, delight, or exultation. Or it may evoke’ feelings of boredom, annoyance, prejudice, dislike, resentment, or fear.” Great books or poems may be a source of self-revelation-they stimulate us to explore our selves and our world. One appreciates reading if he is interested in it and if he reacts appropriately to the excellent qualities which good reading matter possesses. If students read creatively, they involve themselves in the book or article, empathizing with a fictional or real character as he fights and suffers. Some degree of emotional involvement in the article or book is basic to creative reading. A mature reader must react to What he reads in order to make his reading effective and purposeful.
Application
Most certainly the highest level of reading process is the application of what is read to one’s own life. This application of what is read is called creative or integrative reading. ‘Integration of what is read requires that the reader should be able to take understandings, knowledge and attitudes gained in reading and apply them to the solving of his own problems or to the improvement of his own life’ (Miller, 1972). Unless the reader makes use of ideas he gains from reading, the act of reading may have little significance as a means of improving his thinking and his ways of living. According to Yoakam (1955) the ability to use ideas gained from reading depends on the reader’s skill in comprehension, organization, and retention of ideas and upon his ability to gain new ideas and to develop new appreciations. His mind must be alert and he must be willing to make an effort to profit from what he reads.
There is such a wide range of reading materials available today that it should certainly be possible to find books that will be of much use to an individual. The ideas gained through reading must be reflected in his conversation or discussion, and should modify his judgments, increase understanding and suggest new ways of behaviour resulting into all round development of personality.
